Glossary

ʿaba (Amharic [አባ] and other languages, often romanized as abba): Father, a title used in → Ethiopia for clergy, especially as a term of reverence for bishops and patriarchs within the Coptic, Ethiopian, and Syriac churches.

ʿabāyah (Arabic; plural ʿabāyāt; also called an abā): A simple, loose, robe-like dress, worn by many women in the Muslim world (especially in North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Middle East). Traditional ʿabāyāt are black and may be either a large square of fabric draped from the shoulders or head or a long kaftan. The abaya covers the body, except the head, feet, and hands. It can be worn with the → niqāb, a face veil.

äbate (Amharic [አባቴ], literally “my father”): Abbot; a title of courtesy used to address the prior or an (elderly) monk of a monastery.

ʿabd (Arabic): A slave or servant. In a name, ʿAbd is followed by a one of the names for God. For example, the name → Abd el-Haq means Servant of the Truth, while → Abd er-Raḥmān means Servant of the Merciful.

ʿabdul (Arabic; or abdul): A variant of → ʿabd al-…, often romanized as ʿabd el…- or ʿabd ul-…, “servant of the…. For example, the name Abdullah or ʿAbd Allah means “Servant of God,” while Abdul Nabi means “Servant of the Prophet.”

ʾÄbəyə Tsom (Amharic from Geʾez [ዐብይ ጾም]; also Hudadi): The Great Lent or the Great Fast is the most significant and solemn period of fasting in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. This fast, which parallels Lent in other Christian traditions, extends for 56 days. It begins on the Monday following the Sunday of Debre Zeyt (the Feast of Mount Tabor) and concludes on the Saturday before Fasika (Easter Sunday). The fast is divided into three separate periods: Tsome Hirkal, eight days commemorating the fast requested by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius before he set out to fight the Persians and recover the Cross of Christ which they had seized and taken from Jerusalem; Tsome Arba, the 40 days of Lent; and Tsome Himamat, seven days commemorating Holy Week.

 ʿäbunä (Ge’ez, Amharic [አቡነ], “our father”): A bishop, the head of the Abyssinian or Ethiopian Church. He was historically appointed by the Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa, who had diocesan authority over Abyssinia and the rest of Africa. This was only done at the request of the Emperor of Abyssinia and after a → baqshīsh to the → Mamluk government for the privilege. The ʿäbunä was traditionally chosen from the Monastery of Saint Anthony.

Abyssinia (perhaps ultimately derived from the Arabic → Ḥabash, → Ḥabasha): An empire often nominally and largely geographically congruent to the present state of → Ethiopia, dating at least from the 13th century (at the inception of the Solomonic Dynasty) to the 20th century (after the coup d’état by the Derg in 1974). Today, largely for reasons of political correctness, Abyssinia is generally called the “Ethiopian Empire.” However, the emperors (→ nəgusä nägäst yä-Häbäsha [ንጉሠ ነገሥት የሐበሻ], “king of kings of Abyssinia,”) of the Solomonic Dynasty referred to their country as “Abyssinia.” Although the people of this country were called “Abyssinians” by Arabic speakers, Europeans, and others, they also called themselves “Abyssinians.” Thus, the → Amharic term → Häbäsha is both an exonym and endonym. Regrettably, it was and still is used in varying degrees of inclusion and exclusion. In the novel series, the term “Abyssinia” means the country, as it was understood everywhere from the 15th to the 20th century and labelled as such on maps. The monarchy was formally abolished in March 1975, and is since then → Ethiopia, or officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.

Abyssinian embassy to Mamluk Egypt: An embassy sent by → ʾƎskəndər (Eskender), Emperor of → Abyssinia, to al-Ashraf Qāitbāy, → Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, in 1481. The delegation continued on to Jerusalem. Ras → ʿAmdä Mikaʾel, one of the most important figures during ʾƎskəndər’s reign, may have been the envoy (called agent or → legate in the 15th century) dispatched to Cairo in 1481. A son of his probably went to Jerusalem in 1514/1515. Source: Julien Loiseau, “The Ḥaṭī and the Sultan” in Studies on Diplomacy and Diplomatics, 2019, pp. 638–657. In the novel series, → Fiṭawrari → Gәtachäw, the son of ʿAmdä Mikaʾel, accompanied his father in 1481. See →  ḥaṭī, → nəgusä nägäst, and → maṭrān.

accreditation, letter of (from the early 19th century): In → Covilhã’s time this was called a “letter of → credence.” Such letters were used to formally recognize an ambassador or → legate as an authorized representative of a ruler. King Dom → João II issued such a letters to Pêro da → Covilhã as a legate to the court of other regents.

ādāb (Hindustani and other Indian languages, meaning “respect” and “politeness”): Since the Islamic “salām” greeting was often understood to be for Muslims only (see → traditional Muslim greetings), the multifaith and multilingual society of India adopted this alternative form of greeting. Its use became so pervasive that a “salām” was often replied with “ādāb” and vice versa—even in non-Muslim households. The accompanying → gesture is raising the right hand towards the face with palm inwards such that it is in front of the eyes and the finger tips are almost touching the forehead, as the upper torso is bent forward, while uttering “ādāb” or “ādāb arz hai,” meaning “I offer my respects to you.”

Adal Sultanate (known in Arabic locally as Bar Saʾad ad-Dīn, “The country of Saʾad ad-Dīn;” Somali Awdal): A medieval Sunni Muslim Empire in the Horn of Africa, founded after the fall of the Sultanate of → Ifat. It flourished from the early 15th century to the middle of the 16th century. Its capital was moved from → Zeila, to → Dakar in the early 15th century, and then to → Harar in 1554. It’s history is characterized by the conflict with Christian → Abyssinia, leading to proxy wars instigated by the Christian and Muslim “clergy” and the expansion of Western European and Ottoman powers. Today, ʿAdal is part of → Ethiopia and Somalia.

ʿAdan (Arabic; or ʻAdin; IPA /ˈʕædæn/ in Yemeni): See → Aden.

Adelum Regnum (Latin or latinized → toponym): The → Adal Sultanate, literally the “Adel Kingdom.”

Aden (IPA /ˈɑːdɛn/ in American English or /ˈeɪdən/ in British English): …

ʾadhān (Arabic; IPA /ɑːˈðɑːn/): The “adhan,” the call of the → muʾadhdhin to prayer in Islamic countries, originally comprising four → takbir followed by the statement lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh and ʾaṣhaduʾ an.

aditus (Latin): Approach, access. In certain contexts it could also mean entrance, avenue, admission, or reception. Also see: → content titles in this novel series.

Advaita (Sanskrit “non-duality” or “non-dualism”): A branch of the Vedānta (“of the Vedas,” one of six schools of → Hindu philosophy), which postulates non-dualism, maintaining that the ultimate reality, Brahman, and the human soul are identical and that all reality is interconnected. The Advaita school is the antithesis of the → Dvaita Vedānta, which postulates that God (Vishnu or the supreme soul) and the individual souls exist as distinct and independent realities. A prominent proponent of the philosophy of Shuddha Advaita (Pure Nondualism) was → Vallabh Acharya (who, in the novel series, meets → Covilhã). Compare → Dvaita; and see → Bhakti.

adventus (Latin): An “advent,” an approach, a coming, or arrival. See → content titles.

Ægyptus (Latin or latinized → toponym): Egypt.

ʿAfār (Arabic [عَفَار]; ʿAfār Qafár): Afar. The Afar-speaking people, who historically inhabit the Afar or → Danakil desert region and its fringes (generally, the lowland country between south-western coast of the Red Sea to the foot of the Abyssinian highlands in the Horn of Africa). Historically, a warlike, pagan people, eventually Sunnī Muslims of the → Shāfiʿī → madhhab. A man had to kill another male before he could marry. Each kill (in which a stripe of skin including the private parts was taken) was rewarded with a prestigious feather or arm ring. Their clans are divided into the dominant, noble Asaemara (or Asaimara), the “Reds,” and the Adaemara (or Adoimara, the “Whites,” The clans are fluid and can include outsiders, such as the Somali. They live in oval huts, called ari, covered with palm mats. The traditional name by which Arabs referred to the ʿAfār is → Danāqil (mass plural) or → Danqalī (singular), designations the Afar find offensive (today).

ʿAgäw (Geʾez, Amharic [ኣገው]; also Agew): Today, pan-ethnic peoples native to the northern highlands of Ethiopia and Eritrea, who speak ʿAgäw languages (Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family) and are mostly Ethiopian Orthodox Christians. They were the original inhabitants of northern and central → Ethiopia. The Awi people of the ʿAgäw, living in ʿAgäw Mәdәr, southwest of Lake Tana, still “conduct animal sacrifices and worship in sacred groves.” Source: Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 1: p. 143. “The worship of the serpent-god is also referred to in some traditions. … There are even distant echoes of human sacrifice mentioned … as late as the mid-fifteenth century. … Priests were believed to have direct communication with the pagan deities and spirits which granted them powers of both good and evil. They were thus believed to have full powers over all natural phenomena: rain and drought, famine and epidemics, even life and death.” Source: Taddesse Tamrat, “Traditions of Pagan Resistance,” Journal of Ethiopian Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1 (1972): p. 138.

ague: See → malaria.ʾAhl al-Kitāb (Arabic [أهل الكتاب]): “People of the Book” (the Scriptures). In the Quran (al-Qurʾān), a term referring to Jews, Christians, and others (such as Sabeans (the identity of the “Ṣābiʼūn” remaining unresolved), who are not to be persecuted, due to the community of faith among monotheistic scriptures. The Quran emphasizes the virtues of the people that have received earlier revelations, but also questions the refusal of Jews and Christians to accept → Muḥammad’s message. Later, the term was extended to Zoroastrians, Samaritans, Mandaeans, Sikhs, and even polytheistic Indians. The traditional status accorded to the ʾAhl al-Kitāb living in an Islamic land is that of → Dhimmī, a “protected person.”

ʾahlan wa-sahlan (Arabic): See → Arabic greetings and responses (traditional).

aḥmāl (Arabic; or ʿaḥmāl, plural of ḥiml): Loads as a measure of weight (for instance for a camel). See → ḥiml.

ʿajar, al-: See → veil.

ajedrez (Spanish): Chess. In → Covilhã’s time, a newer version of the game evolved, featuring a queen piece (instead of the → wazīr), was called “ajedrez a la dama,” Spanish for “the queen’s chess.” The old Arabic version of the game was called “ajedrez al viejo,” viejo meaning the “old man,” derogative for the wazīr. See → chess and → shaṭranj.

ʾAjrūd (Arabic): A marshaling ground near an old fortress (Bastat al ʾAjrūd) about 15 miles (25 km) northwest of Suez, used by pilgrims performing the → ḥajj.

Ajuran Clan (Somali Ajuuraan): A → Somali-speaking clan of the Jambelle Clan of the Hawiye Clan Family. They inhabit Kenya as well as South-East → Ethiopia and South → Somalia, including → Mogadishu. The Ajuran clan established a dynasty that ruled the → Ajuran Empire and eventually the Sultanate of → Mogadishu.

Ajuran Empire (Somali Dawladdii Ajuuraan (or Dawlaḍī Ajūrān), the “Ajuran Government;” Arabic Salṭana ʾAjrān (?), from ʾījār, “tax”): In the early 13th century, → Mogadishu (along with other cities in southern Somalia) became a vassal state under the control of the → Ajuran Clan.

akh or akhū (Arabic [أَخ] or construct state [أَخُو]): Brother. An example of a gracious and an insulting usage are yā akhī, yā akh al-ʿArab “o brother of the Arabs” and yā akh sharmūṭa “you brother of a whore.”

akhdh al-kawākib (Arabic [أخذ الكواكب], literally “taking the stars”): To measure the height of heavenly bodies (or actually the angle between the celestial body and the horizon) with a device, such as the → astrolabe (Arabic → ʾasṭurlāb). → Moorish and → Frankish mariners in the 15th and 16th century used the shortened phrase →“taking the stars” for taking the height of the stars, i.e. their altitude above the horizon.

In English this was later known as “shooting” (perhaps in analogy to aiming and shooting the crossbow) the sun, the north star, etc. among other phrases.

Medieval → Islamic sources also identified the → astrolabe, → ʾasṭurlāb, itself as a tool for “taking the stars,” akhdh al-kawākib. This can serve as a confirmation of the Arabic idiom.

See → akhdh al-shams.

akhdh al-shams (Arabic[أخذ الشمس], literally “taking the sun”): To measure the height of the sun (or actually the angle between the sun and the horizon) with a device, such as the → astrolabe (Arabic → ʾasṭurlāb). → Moorish and → Frankish mariners in the 15th and 16th century used the shortened phrase → “taking the sun” for taking the height of the sun, i.e. its altitude above the horizon. In English this was later known as “shooting” the sun, the north star, etc. among other phrases. See → akhdh al- kawākib.

akhi (Arabic): “My brother.” See → akh.

ʾakthiba (Arabic; or kuthbān; singular → kathīb; from the root k-th-b meaning “to collect”): (Sand) dunes.

ʾalʾala, el- (Tlemçenian Arabic): See → qalqala.

alambeis (Portuguese, plural; also lambeis, alambes, lambes, hambels, and lanbens; borrowing from Arabic al- → ḥambel, “blanket;” the singular form would be alambel, but I have only encountered the plural use): Colorful woolen shawls, capes, or mantels woven in the → Maghreb (perhaps mainly in the Emirate of → Tilimsān during → Covilhã’s time.

Note that the Arabic plural as well as the Maghrebi and Andalusi Arabic plural for alambeis is al- → ḥanābil.

They were purchased annually by the Portuguese in → Oran and other → Barbary ports, later also at Safi and → Azemur. The shawls were then shipped to → Elmina in → Guiné (Guinea) and traded for gold. Source: adapted from C. F. Beckingham and G. W. B. Huntingford, The Prester John of the Indies, 1961, Vol. II: p. 370, note 1.

I have also found a rare description of alambeis or “lanbens,” as capes or mantels: “The country is called Axem [Axim on West Africa’s Ivory Coast] and is very subject to fever. The merchandise exchanged for gold consists of brass bracelets, basins of the same metal, red and blue cloth, linen neither very coarse nor very fine, and ‘lanbens,’ that is, a kind of mantle made like the shawls of Alentejo, with stripes of red, green, blue, and white, the stripes being two or three inches wide. They are made in the city of Ouram [Old Portuguese for → Orão, → Oran] and in Tenez [Ténès] in the kingdom of → Tremecem [Old Portuguese for → Tlemçen, today Algeria]….” Source: Duarte Pacheco Pereira, Esmeraldo De Situ Orbis, edited by George H. T. Kimble, 1937, p. 117.

See al- → ḥambel for further information.

 ʿalayhi s-salāmu (Arabic [عَلَيْهِ ٱلسَّلَامُ‎], often romanized simply as alayhis salam): An Islamic honorific applying to Muḥammad (and other prophets or the angels) meaning “(the) peace (of God) be upon him,” often abbreviated as “PBUH,” a calque of the Arabic phrase. Also see → ʿalayhis-salat was-salāmu.

ʿalayhi ṣ-ṣalātu wa-s-salāmu (Arabic, often romanized simply as alayhis-salat salam): An Islamic honorific applying to Muḥammad (and other prophets or the angels) meaning “(the) blessings and peace (of God) be upon him,” a calque of the Arabic phrase. Also see → ʿalayhis s-sālamu.

Alberti cipher disk: See → cipher disk.

ʾalәga (Amharic [አልጋ]): A traditional Ethiopian bed used by persons of high status. It was comprised of a rectangular wooden frame supported by four wooden posts. The frame held lengths of stretched rawhide thongs. Ornate ceremonial beds with colorful carpets, covers, pillows, and curtains were used as a kind of throne by royalty and nobles. Source: adapted from Encyclopaedia Aethiopica. Álvares speaks of a catre, supposedly a “truckle-bed.” Source: C. F. Beckingham and G. W. B. Huntingford, The Prester John of the Indies, 1961, Vol. I, p. 101, note 2. Portuguese-English dictionaries translate catre simply as “cot.”

Alexandria (Arabic al-ʾIskandariyya; Egyptian Arabic Eskenderiyya; Coptic Rakotə): Egypt’s largest seaport, located in the Nile delta. Built by Alexander the Great on the ruins of an ancient Egyptian town. Hellenistic Alexandria was known for the Pharos, a great lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. In the Islamic era it was ruled by the → Mamluks. Al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Dīn → Qāitbāy, built a great citadel at the site of the Pharos using the stones of its ruins in 1477.

Alәyu ʿAmba (Amharic [አልዩ አምባ] also romanized as Aliyu): Today, a small town situated in the Ankober Woreda (→ wäräda). Formerly, an → Abyssinian town, “Aliu Amba,” 15 miles (24 km) southeast of “Ankober.” Source: O. G. S. Crawford, Ethiopian Itineraries, 1955, under Remarks about the Itineraries, “Fig. 19. Zorzi’s Iter IV: from Barara northwards,” p. 87. “A Muslim town, located about 58 km southeast of the town of Debrä Bərhan, in northeastern → Shäwa (?) on the main trade route to [→ Zeila via]→ Harär and Awsa [at] an altitude of 1,805 m. [It was] one of the biggest market towns since at least the 17th century.” Source: Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 1, pp. 195–196. Also see → Ankobar and → Gendebelo.

Allāh (Arabic; contraction of al-Ilāh, “the God”): God (in Islam). Often invoked as Allāhu akbar, the phrase being called the → takbir.

alidade (borrowed from Arabic al-ʿiḍāda [العِضَادة], “the ruler” or ): The sighting rule of an → astrolabe, Arabic →ʾasṭurlāb.

ālim (Arabic; or ʿālim, plural ʿulamāʾ): A learned person, a scholar, particularly one recognized as an authority in the Islamic religious sciences.

ʿalmah (Arabic; singular, plural ʿawālim): See → ʿawālim and → ghāziya. Compare with → surrīyah and → qiyān.

ʿalmeh (Egyptian Arabic; variant of → ʿalmah): See → ʿawālim and → ghāziya. Compare with → surrīyah and → qiyān.

almirante (Portuguese, from Arabic al- → ʿamīr): Admiral. The title was established by King Dom Dinis in the 14th century for the commander of a fleet in his new naval force.

Alteza, Sua/Vossa (Portuguese; Spanish Su/Vuestra Alteza): “His/Her/Your Highness,” a style used to address the Portuguese monarchs. This style of address was used 1433–1577, and thus, during Pêro da → Covilhã’s lifetime.

Only toward the end of the 16th century did the style change to Sua/Vossa Majestade, “His/Her/Your Majesty” (and briefly to Sua/Vossa Alteza Real, “His/Her/Your Royal Highness”) for kings.

Sua Alteza would be the usual address of King Dom → João II, even by other high nobles and intimate royal administrators, such as Dom → Ruy de Pina.

In privacy, or perhaps to show off this intimacy with the King, or in the course of a conversation, he could be addressed as → Senhor or Senhor Rey (never as Ó Senhor). See → Ó.

Note that an infante, a prince, was also entitled to the style of Alteza. Thus, Dom → Manuel and his brother Dom → Diogo would be addressed as Vossa Alteza.

Pêro da → Covilhã or others of similar rank would, nevertheless address Dom → Manuel and his brother Dom → Diogo as Senhor Duque, or just Senhor especially after having addressed them initially more formally as Vossa Alteza.

See Your → Highness, Sua/Vossa → Mercê, and Sua/Vossa → Senhoria.

amān (Arabic; from amāna, “trustworthiness” and “truthfulness”): A verbal or written guarantee of safe conduct or protection in Islamic countries in use since → Muḥammad’s time. At the end of the 13th century, the → Mamlūk sultanate began to issue such safe-conducts to notable foreign merchants. See → passport. Compare → farmān.

ʿamba (Geʾez, Amharic [ኣምባ], also [ዐምባ], also romanized as ʿəmba; originally a “mountain fortress”): An “amba” (English borrowing), a characteristic, often stepped, flat-topped mountain with steep escarpments found in Ethiopia. It differs from a “mesa” by its lack of isolation and formation of sedimentary rocks capped by more resistant rocks (as found in the Southwest of North America); it differs from a “plateau” in that ambas are separated by deep canyons, as opposed to a more extensive, raised, usually flat-surfaced area. Nevertheless, the Ethiopian Highlands, despite their typical amba landscapes in the north, are considered to be a “plateau,” in fact the highest one in Africa. “[An amba was] often commanded by a functionary with the title amba ras [or] → balambaras.” Source: Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 1, pp. 217–218.

ʿAmba Gәshän (Amharic [አምባ ግሸን]; also romanized as Amba Geshen): A mountain in northern Ethiopia, historically used as a royal prison. It is located in the → Amhara Region, northwest of Dessie. Whenever an emperor of → Abyssinia assumed the throne, his brothers and other male relatives would be taken to this royal prison to live there until they died, unless called upon to become the new emperor. The use of ʿAmba Gәshän as a prison was ended by ʿAtse → Naʾod (see under Characters), who was imprisoned there himself.

Amharic names (specifically naming conventions during the Abyssinian Solomonid dynasty, 1270  – 1974): The traditional naming convention typically comprises an individual personal name (first name) and a separate patronymic (second name). This patronymic is usually the father’s first name (sometimes grandfather’s first name is added as a third name). There were no family surnames, nor did wives take the name of their husbands. Also see → Arabic names.

amir (English, first use 1542; from Arabic → ʿamīr): A title for a Muslim ruler, governor, tribal chief, or prince. Since the English term was not current in Covilhã’s time, I used the Arabic → ʿamīr in the novel series. See → ʾamīr below for a detailed description. Compare → emir and → sulṭān.

ʾamīr (Arabic [أمير]; plural umarāʾ; feminine form ʾamīrah): An amir (or emir), a prince, ruler, or high military leader. Under the → Mamluks, also a military rank (often defined by the number soldiers commanded): originally meant “commander” or “leader”. It later became associated with rulers and governors, particularly in smaller states.

Note that I do not use the hamzah (ʿ or ʾ) at the beginning of a word in the novel series.

ʾamīr khamsa (plural umarāʾ al-khamsāt): Amir of Five.

ʾamīr ʿashara (plural umarāʾ al-ʾasharāt): Amir of Ten. Each had ten horsemen under their command, which may have increased to twenty.

ʾamīr miʾa (plural umarāʾ al-miʾīn): Amir of Hundred. Each had one horsemen under their command and were entitled to buy at least 100 →Mamluks.

muqaddam alf (plural muqaddamūn al-ulūf): Commander of Thousand. Each had the right to lead 1,000 horsemen of Mamluks as well as lesser-ranking amirs and was also responsible for the command of 1,000 soldiers of the → ḥalqa in times of war.

ʾamīr al-kabīr: The commander in chief, a high → Mamlūk office.

ʾamīr akhūr: A supervisor of the royal stables, a → Mamlūk office, originally the chief fodderer. The ʿamīr akhūr was a → muqaddam alf and resided in the citadel.

ʾamīr al-ʾusṭūl [أمير الأسطول]: Admiral of the fleet or fleet admiral. Note that the term “admiral” derives from Arabic ʾamīr al-baḥr, “commander of the sea.”

ʾamīr al-ḥajj: The “commander (-in-chief) of the pilgrimage.” This office is not a military rank, but a temporary appointment, usually of a → muqaddam alf or above, to lead an upcoming → ḥajj. See headword → ʿamīr al-ḥajj below.

ʾamīr al-umarāʾ (literally the “commander of the commanders”): The supreme military commander or commander in chief.

ʾamīr al-ḥajj (plural umarāʾ al-ḥajj): The “commander (-in-chief) of the pilgrimage” (not a military rank); the leader of a specific mass-pilgrimage, such as from Cairo or Damascus to Mecca. The highly honored office (valid only for the upcoming ḥajj) was bestowed by the → Mamluk sultan (of Egypt).

The ʾamīr al-ḥajj was selected for his leadership, military and organizational skills, as well as for political reasons. He was responsible for the safety and supply of up to 60,000 pilgrims (including those from the → Maghrib and other Islamic regions of Africa), their camels, and provisions for a three-month journey over rough desert terrain, where → Bedouin tribes had to be paid off or fought off.

Therefore, the amir brought along physicians (ḥakimūn or ḥukkām, see → ḥakīm), imams (ʾaʾimma, see→ ʾimām), muezzins (muʾadhinūn, see → muʾadhin), qadis (quḍāh, see → qāḍī), and even market inspectors (muḥtasibun (?), see → muḥtasib).

The returning ḥujjāj (hajis) spread the word all over the Islamic world about the umarāʾ al-ḥajj regarding their success, charity, or ruthlessness.

The → kiswa, the ceremonial covering for the → Kaʿba, was usually woven in Egypt, it was carried by the Cairo caravan, while the Damascene caravan carried the corresponding covering for Muhammad’s tomb in Medina.

A few Mamluk sultans made the pilgrimage themselves, but usually their symbolic presence was represented by a maḥmal (palanquin), escorted by musicians.

For → Mamluk military ranks, see → ʿamīr above; for a character in the book, who served as ʿamīr al-ḥajj, see → Qānṣūh “Khamsmīyah” under Characters at www.prestejoao.com. Compare → sulṭān.

ʾamole (Amharic [አሞሌ]; also amoleh, amolé, or amolē; plural ʾamolewəch [አሞሌዎች]): A bar, especially a rectangular, one-pound salt bar, → Abyssinia’s basic currency.

These bars often came from the salt flats in the → Afar Depression (formerly called → Danakil Depression or Danakil Desert). The salt slabs were broken out of salt layers, hewn with the adze and chisel, and carried by camel caravans to the highlands.

The value of such a bar increased with distance until a single ʾamole could buy a slave in the western regions of Ethiopia. The worth of salt in general, called “white gold” since ancient times, is perhaps revealed by the etymology of the word “salary,” derived from the Latin salarium, itself stemming from the Latin salis, salt. And to get a salary, someone had to “be worth his salt.”

Having been at an open-air market in Bati (located just below the escarpment to the highlands about 250 km north of the historic → Tägulät or → Ankobar and 400 km northeast of Addis Ababa) during a study tour in Ethiopia, I can report that camel caravans still brought the salt bars here from the → Afar Depression (at least until 2008).

The results of my subsequent research regarding the size, weight, and value of the ʾamole (especially in the 15th and 16th centuries) was conflicting, despite many available sources. See → silent barter trade. Here are some of the statements I’ve found:

Álvares: “The best thing [in] Ethiopia … is the salt, which in all the country is current as money, both in the kingdoms and dominions of the → Prester and in the kingdoms of the Moors and pagans … and it comes in the shape of sun-dried bricks. Each block is a → span and a half in length, four fingers thick and three across [thus, approx. 30–33 cm x 9–11 cm x 5–8 cm, depending on how Old Portuguese measurements are converted], and so it goes loaded on beasts like faggots. They say that in the place where the salt is collected 120 or 130 blocks are worth 300 reals [or ¾ of a gold ducat, worth perhaps 100–150 EUR or USD today, see → ducat for explanation]…. The salt is very cheap where it is got, and very dear at Court [in → Tägulät], because it does not travel easily.” Source: C. F. Beckingham and G. W. B. Huntingford, The Prester John of the Indies, 1961, Vol. I, pp. 180–181. Álvares’ account of the salt-bar trade in → Abyssinia carries great weight in my view, as he is a credible contemporary of Pêro da → Covilhã.

Kohl, based on Pankhurst: “A dram of gold equal to a … dollar would usually buy 120 to 130 pieces of salt at markets near salt mines and only 6 to 10 at the most distant places. The size of a salt Amole is described as a span and a half in length, four fingers in width, and three in thickness. A reasonable estimate in terms of inches could be fixed at 12 x 3 ½ x 2 ½ [30.5 x 9 x 5 cm, agreeing with and probably based on Álvarez above] and it weighed approximately 17 ounces [482 g].” Source: Melvin J. Kohl, Ethiopia – Treasure House of Africa, A Review of Ethiopian Currency and Related History, 1969, p. 11 (based on data from Dr. Richard Pankhurst’s The History of Currency … in Ethiopia …, 1965).

Money Museum: “Amole salt bar money from Ethiopia owes its popularity to its double use as means of exchange and as raw material. On local markets they are traded until today. Paying with amoles is somewhat inconvenient, however, because the bars have to be measured, weighed and checked for damages and hollow spaces. Their value depends on the season and on the geographical position of the markets. The greater the distance from the salt mines, the more expensive they are.” / “Salt was used as means of exchange in some form or other on all continents: as bars, slabs or diverse other shapes. In Ethiopia, salt was traded in the form of bars. They were called amole and were packed in wood shavings to protect them. Until the mid-20th century, amole served as a currency almost throughout Black Africa.” / “Salt bars, the so-called amoles, were used as means of payment in Ethiopia since ancient times. The oldest reference to their use as money goes back to the Greek traveler Cosmas, who visited the empire of Axum, today’s Ethiopia, in the year 525 BC. Salt bars were still in use in Ethiopia at the beginning of the 20th century: In 1903, the tax authorities of the Ethiopian Empire took in amoles worth 907,000 birr, which amounted to 27 percent of total revenues.” Source: Money Museum, Pre-Monetary Currencies, Africa, Ethiopia, Amole Salt Bars and Traditional Money in Africa, 2011 (https://www.moneymuseum.com/en/coins?&id=1613).

Encyclopedia of Money: “Bars of salt money were called ʿamoleʾ, [they] bore a marked resemblance to a whetstone, 10 to 12 inches in length, 1.5 inches thick [note that this size is much smaller than that given by Álvares above], and black in color, perhaps from handling. They weighed about a pound. Referring to a millionaire, Ethiopians say “he eateth salt.” During the 19th century, Richard Burton visited Harar and observed that a slave cost a donkey-load of salt bars. Ethiopians enjoyed a reputation for accurately gauging the amount to break off. White salt of a finer quality met the needs for seasoning, and the black bars were reserved for monetary uses.” Source: Excerpts from Encyclopedia of Money, Salt Currency, 2011 (https://­encyclopedia-of-money.blogspot.com/).

As an indication of the importance of the ʾamole salt trade in Abyssinia, I’ve listed some related Amharic terms adapted from the Amharic-English Dictionary by Thomas Leiper Kane, 1990:

ʾamole (Amharic [አሞሌ]): “Amole bar or block of crystalline salt formerly used as currency ….”

ʾamole mähä (Amharic [አሞሌ መኀ]): “A … weight or quantity weighing as much as an amole-salt block.”

bəsələ ʾamole (Amharic [ብስል አሞሌ]): “A whole amole.”

boru nägatse (Amharic [ቦሩ ነጋጼ]): “A merchant of salt bars (amole).”

käbatsə ʾamole (Amharic [ከባጽ አሞሌ]): “A heavy amole.”

mässa (Amharic [መሳ]): “A weight equivalent to that of an amole-salt bar.”

qälalə ʾamole (Amharic [ቀላል አሞሌ]): “A light-weight amole.”

qəranna (Amharic [ቅረና]): “Ten cubits of cloth or an amole-salt bar used [at] a market.”

säbara ʾamole (Amharic [ሰባራ አሞሌ]): “A broken amole bar.”

sänannägä (Amharic [ሰናነገ]):” To tie up broken salt bars (amole) with bast.”

sännaga (Amharic [ሰናጋ]): “A broken salt bar (amole) tied with bast.”

sännägä (Amharic [ሰነገ]):Among various other definitions “to tie salt bars (amole) together.”

sənnäga (Amharic [ስነጋ]): “A cracked salt bar tied with bast.”

ʾAndalus, al- (Arabic [الْأَنْدَلُس]; probably from Vulgar Latin Vandalicia, “Land of the Vandals;” Spanish Andalucía; Portuguese Andaluzia): Andalusia, Iberia, or (Muslim) Spain (711-1492). See al- → ʾAndalusī and al- → Maghribī.

ʾAndalusī, al- (Arabic [الأندلسي]; from al- → ʾAndalus): A person, primarily a → Muslim, or thing from or of al- → ʾAndalus.

Anfa (Berber name meaning “hill”): Later called Casablanca by the Spanish and adopted by the French.

Ankobär (Amharic [አንኮበር], later Ankober): An Ethiopian town of Christian tradition, located in the northeastern part of → Shäwa, in the former → Tägulät Bulga awrajja. Source: Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 1, p. 273. “Ankober” is 15 miles (24 km) east-southeast of “Debra Berhan” [Debrä Bərhan] and 18 miles (29 km) south of  “Debra Sina [Debrä Sina].” Source: O. G. S. Crawford, Ethiopian Itineraries, 1958, under Remarks about the Itineraries, Fig. 19. Zorzi’s Iter IV: from Barara northwards, p. 87. Also see → Alәyu Amba and → Gendebelo.

According to Crawford: “[Some towns mentioned] are known to have been in Ifat, and therefore somewhere not more than 60 miles at the most from Debra Berhan. […] One of those inland ports whither goods from overseas were brought across the desert; and […] the only one available is Ankober with its twin town of Aliu Amba [→ Alәyu Amba, …] Ankober stands right on the very edge of the Ethiopian plateau, on a narrow neck of land jutting out from it and nearly 10,000 feet above sea level. Somewhere about 30 miles to the east and at the foot of the great escarpment was the ‘great mercantile city’ of Gendevelu [see → Gendebelo], where the bales of Indian spices were taken off the camels (which could not climb to the heights) and transferred to warehouses, to be bought by Ethiopians with Hungarian and Venetian ducats.” Source: Ethiopian Itineraries by O. G. S. Crawford, Hakluyt, 1958, Zorzi’s Iter II, based on Brother Zorgi, 1517, pp. 65–66.

According to Lindahl: Ankobar was about 25 kilometers east of Debre Birhan and, in → the Shäwa zone of Amhara, perched on the eastern escarpment of the Ethiopian Highlands overlooking → Adal. Thanks to friendly relations with the emirs of Harar, Ankobar was founded at the end of the 13th century as an alternative capital. It was formerly the capital of →  Shäwa and may have formerly been known as → Gendebelo, Gorebela, or Gourabela. Source: Bernhard Lindahl, “Ankober,” Local History of Ethiopia, 2005, (https://nai.uu.se/library/resources/thematic-resources/local-history-of-ethiopia.html).

apparentia (Latin): Appearance; appearing, becoming visible, external appearance.

apes (here actually hamadryas baboons which are classified as monkeys): In the novel series, during → Pêro’s (see → Covilhã) exploration of Yemen, a discussion ensues about apes that descend from the mountains and endanger travelers, inspired by Varthema’s account of Arabia Felix (Travels, pp. 84–85), where he claims to have seen “more than 10,000 apes, among which were certain animals like lions, which do great injury to man…. [Thus] it is not possible to pass by that route excepting in companies of at least one hundred persons.” A footnote explains that the apes were “in the original gatti maimoni” and that Niebuhr said, “he frequently saw hundreds of apes at a time in the woods of Yemen.” It seems that these animals were actually hamadryas baboons, native to the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Varthema cleverly called them gatti maimoni as the Gatto Mammone is a mythical “cat demon” of Italian folklore. Niebuhr, who also published the taxonomic Descriptiones animalium in 1775, was not quite as clever with his “apes.” The same footnote surmises that the lion “probably was the hyena, which is not uncommon in the country.” This does Varthema a disservice, as he only says like lions, and adult hamadryas baboon males have indeed a mane and mantle much like a male lion.

ʿAqaba, al- (Arabic [العقبة], also romanized as ʿAqabah): A town at the northeast end of the Gulf of Aqaba, the northeast arm of the Red Sea. The port had an important history over the course of thousands of years and played an important part in the Mamlūk era. The ancient city was called Elath, adopted in Latin as Aela and in Arabic as → Ayla. The present name al-ʿAqaba is a shortened from al-ʿAqabat Aylah, “the mountain-pass of Ayla,” first mentioned in the 12th century by Idrisi, at a time when the settlement had been mostly reduced to a military stronghold, properly referring to the pass just to the north-east of the settlement. The Gulf of Aqaba is called → Khalīj al-ʿAqaba in Arabic.

ʾaqabe säʾat (Amharic [ዐቃቤ ሰዓት], “keeper of time”): A high official, often a clergyman, who was responsible for keeping the emperor’s schedule. He had authority over the clergy assigned to the imperial court. The position was one of great power in medieval times.

aqal(-ka) (Somali; also romanized as aḫal(-ki); plural aqallo): A type of portable, dome-shaped Somali dwelling made of poles covered by hides and mats. They traditionally belonged to the women, who were responsible for their assembly, disassembly, and transport. They could be erected or dismantled in a few minutes. In modern usage perhaps any “house.” Compare → mundul(-ka).

Arabia: The Arabian Peninsula (of Western Asia, northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate). The Romans divided the region (from north to south) as follows (in Latin, the terms being adopted by Claudius → Ptolemæus and retained by geographers and cartographers throughout the Middle Ages and by some well into the early modern period; also see → Arabs):

Arabia Petræa, the “Stony Arabia,” comprised (the former Nabataean Kingdom in) Jordan, the southern Levant, the Sinai Peninsula, and northwestern Arabian Peninsula. It became a province, with Petra as its capital.

Arabia Deserta, the “Desert(ed) Arabia,” was the barren (unfertile) interior of the Arabian Peninsula.

Arabia Felix, the “Fertile Arabia,” often rendered as “Happy Arabia,” was what is now Yemen and Oman, greener than the rest of the peninsula, enjoying much more rain. Latin felix means “fertile” as well as “happy.” In this context “fertile,” as contrasted to “stony” and “barren,” may be the more appropriate translation.

Arabic calendar: See → Hijri calendar.

Arabic forms of address (including traditional usage and insults): See → Arabic greetings and responses (traditional) and → Yā. Also see → Jalālatūkum (“Your Highness,” “Your Majesty”).

Arabic greetings and responses (traditional):

ʾahlan: This is the short form of ʾahlan wa-sahlan. This may not be a traditionally acceptable “welcome.”

ʾahlan bik/biki/bikum: The usual reply to ʾahlan (wa-sahlan) is ʾahlan bik to a man, ʾahlan biki to a woman, and ʾahlan bikum to more than one person, in the sense of “feeling welcome.”

ʾahlan wa-sahlan: “Kin and ease.” This stands for “welcome,” in the sense of “you are welcome as relative and will be made comfortable here!”

as-salāmu ʿalaykum ([السَّلَامُ عَلَيْكُمْ], plural form, but used for one person or a group): “May peace be upon you.” This is the most common greeting, the ‘u’ in salāmu is often dropped.

·      Response: wa ʿalaykumu s-salāmu. This is the standard formal, grammatically plural response, even when speaking to just one person. The usual response (even in the 15th century) is wa ʿalaykum as-salām.

·  Note: This plural form is often used even if addressing a single person for due to a religious belief: Two unseen angels accompany everyone to record their good and bad deeds, and thus, three individuals should be addressed, rather than just the one human. Another reason may be the pluralis majestatis, used when addressing individuals of high rank, such as kings and sultans.

as-salāmu ʿalayka [السلام عليكَ] (used toward one male) or as-salāmu ʿalayki [السلام عليكِ] (used toward one female): “May peace be upon you.” This is the most common greeting. Response: wa ʿalayka s-salāmu (one male) or wa ʿalayki s-salāmu (one female): “And peace be upon you too.” See the usage note above.

as-salāmu ʿalaykum wa-raḥmatu Llāhi wa-barakātuhu (used toward a group of persons): “May peace be upon you as well as God’s mercy and blessings.” This is the most elaborate greeting.

as-salāmu ʿalayki Yā Maryamu Yā Mumtaliʾatu ni ʿmatan: “Hail Mary, full of grace…” (first line of the Hail Mary). Perhaps used as a Coptic greeting.

ʾaṭāla Allāh bahāʾak: “May God prolong thy splendor.” This was the traditional greeting when addressing the sultan of Yemen (after touching the ground or floor and then the forehead with one’s forefinger.

marḥaban: “Welcome.” Today perhaps, “Hello.” Derived from raḥḥaba, “to make welcome, to receive graciously.”

marḥaban bik/biki/bikum: The most common reply to marḥaban is marḥaban bik to a man, marḥaban biki to a woman, and marḥaban bikum to more than one person, in the sense of “feeling welcome.”

misaʾ al-khayr: “Good evening.” This follows the same pattern as ṣabāḥ al-khayr.

misaʾ an-nūr: “Evening of light.” The most common reply to misaʾ al-khayr.

ṣabāḥ al-khayr: “Good morning.”

ṣabāḥ an-nūr: “Morning of light.” The most common reply to ṣabāḥ al-khayr. There are many replies to this greeting in Arabic, depending on the mood and creativity of the speaker, beginning with “morning of ….”

tisbah ʿala khayr: “Good night.” It means “wake up to the good.”

wa-ʿalaykum: “And upon you.” This is another, rather terse, reply to as-salāmu ʿalykum.

wa-ʿalaykumu s-salāmu: “Peace be upon you too.” This is the reply to as-salāmu ʿalykum.

wa anta (or anti) min ahlū: This is the usual reply to tisbah ʿala khayr. It means “and may you be one of the good.”

Accompanying gestures and manners (I was unable to verify the described comportments for the time and locations of → Covilhã’s travels; further greeting customs are practiced only in certain regions or only among certain tribes or only within families):

A gesture common to the salām is placing the right palm on the heart (before and after a handshake).

A more common and perhaps more traditional gesture is to place your right hand on your heart, touch your forehead, and then pass it over your head as you say your salām.

When greeting someone, you put your hands together as you approach them, and kiss them on the cheeks uttering the greeting. Note that men only kiss men and women only women. An alternative is to touch each other’s cheeks and make a kissing sound in the process. Here also, men only touch men and women only women.

In Egypt (and Iran) it is customary to kiss three times, on alternate cheeks.

Bedouins traditionally pour rose water over your hands when you arrive at an encampment. As desert travelers, they did this to refresh their guests and to wash away any unpleasant smells from their journey.

Among Muslims and Hindus (in India), particularly when interacting with each other (in regions of religious pluralism, the →“ādāb” greeting was used extensively, as the “salām” was often considered as a Muslim-only greeting.

After the initial greeting, kissing, or touching, the following exchange may take place:

kayfa ḥāluka?: “How are you?” Often reduced to kayf hālak? This is asked of man.

kayfa ḥāluki?: “How are you?” Often reduced to kayf hālik? This is asked of woman.

al-ḥamdu li-Llāh(i): “Praise be to God” or reduced to hamd-Allāh, “Thank God.” This is one of many responses to the question kayfa hāluka/-i? or kayf hālak/-ik?

bi-khayr, b-khayr, bi-khīr, or b-khīr: “Well,” “good,” or “fine.” This is another of many responses to the question kayfa hāluka/-i? or kayf hālak/-ik?

Arabic names (specifically naming conventions during the Islamic Medieval Period, c. 900 –1517): Muslims (as well as Jews and Christians to some extent) in Islamic societies follow an ancient naming structure, comprising five parts (not all of which are combined in any one name, nor necessarily follow in the sequence below), especially as used in the past (such as in → Covilhã’s time):

ism: A given, “first” name, such as Bashīr, “Bearer of Good News” or ʿĀʾishah (Aisha), “Happily Living,” often aspirational or praiseworthy adjectives and names of members of the Prophet’s family. Note: Elders and unfamiliar persons are not called by their ism. It is considered a slight to address or refer to an elder, a parent, or an unfamiliar person by their ism.

kunya: The name of the person’s first-born child or a figurative epithet, preceded by Abū, “Father of” or Umm, “Mother of,” such as ʿAbd er-Raḥmān, “Servant of the Merciful,” or Abū Nidal, “Father of Struggle.” Note: When using a person’s full name, the kunya precedes the personal name: Abū Yūsuf Ḥasan , the “father of Joseph, Ḥasan ,” or Umm Jaʾfar Aminah, the “mother of Jaʾfar, Aminah.”

nasab: A patronymic “last” name or series of patronymics, preceded by ibn, bin, or ben, “son of,” and bint or ibnat, “daughter of,” such as ben Abd el-Haq, “son of Abd el-Haq,” or ibn Muḥammad, “son of Muḥammad.” A nasab can form an ancestral lineage, but seldom extends beyond two generations.

laqab: An honorific or typical quality of the person (rarely used with a nisba), such as al-Munajim, “the Astrologer,” al-Rashid, “the Rightly Guided,” or al-Fadl, “the Prominent”.

nisba: The origin or tribal allegiance of the person, such as al-ʾAndalusī, “the Andalusian,” or al-Marīni, “the Marinid” (a member of the Banū Marīn, the “Tribe of Marin”).

Also see → Amharic names.

Arabs (from Arabic ʿarabī, IPA /ˈʕarabi/; also known as the “Arab people”): An ethnic group and nation first inhabiting → Arabia, then, after their expansion, migration, and diaspora, the → Arab world. Today the term often refers to those whose native language is Arabic. The narrower traditional definition refers to the descendants of the Arabian tribes. As Arabic is the language of → Islam, the religion of the vast majority of Arabs, Muslims in general are often referred to as Arabs. Also see → Moors.

Arab world (from Arabic al-ʾālam al-ʾarabī, the “Arab homeland”): Today formally known as the “Arab nation” (al-ummah al-ʾarabīyah), it comprises 22 Arab countries which are members of the Arab League. Historically, the Arab world encompassed the Arab empires and caliphates. Also see → Arabs.

ʿArāʾish, al- (Arabic [العرائش]): Larache, major port city in northwestern → Morocco, situated on the Atlantic coast at the mouth of the Wad Lekkus, or Loukkos River, approximately 80 km southwest of → Tangier.

ʿaraq (Arabic [ﻋﺮﻕ], “sweat,” also romanized as arak; not to be confused with the East Asian liquor usually spelled arrack or arak, nor the Sudanese date wine → sharbut or date-liquor → araqi): Arak, a distilled, translucent, and unsweetened → Levantine spirit of the anise family, traditionally made of grapes and aniseed. It is usually diluted with two parts water before serving.

ʿaraqī (Arabic [عرقي], “”): A date-liquor distilled in Sudan, made by mixing dates with water and yeast, fermenting the mix, and then distilling it. Thus, it is distilled → sharbut. As opposed to the Levantine → araq, it is usually served neat.

ʾArḍ al-ʾIfranj or ʾArḍ al-Firinja (Arabic [الْإِفْرَنْج‎ أرض] or [أرض الفرنجة], the “Land of the Franks”): A Muslim term for Europe, before it was called such, even by Europeans, “Franks,” during the Middle Ages, then and later it referred especially to Western Europe. Also called → Franjistan.

Ärger (German; nouns are capitalized in German; IPA /ˈʔɛɐ̯ɡɐ/): Trouble. In the novel series, the word is used by Felix → Fabri in the expression “Nix als Ärger!” meaning “Nothing but trouble!” See → nix.

ʾarḥō (ʿAfār, also romanized as arhó, IPA /arˈho/): Caravan. Source: wiktionary.org, based on E. M. Parker, R. J. Hayward (1985) in An Afar-English-French dictionary. The term is used by Budge (Vol. I, p. 321) describing the death of ʿAtse → ʿƎskəndər (see under Characters). I interpret the passage as the result of an unintended conflict with a → Māya (→ ʿAfār).

Arkiko (also Archigo, Arqiqo, Hargigo, or Harkiko): A town in todayʾs Eritrea, formerly Medri Bahri, on the mainland across from the island of → Massawa in the Red Sea.

arquebus: See → gun.

arrátel (Portuguese; plural arráteis; from Arabic ar-raṭl): An obsolete Portuguese unit of weight, equivalent to a about pound, depending on the time and region. In Medieval times the arrátel was 12.5 to 14 onças or ounces (0.4025 kg), in 1499 it was 1 libra (pound) or 16 onças (0,4590 kg) by decree of King Dom → Manuel I. Related to the Arabic → raṭl.

Arsila (Portuguese): See → Asilah.

aruzz (Arabic; Spanish arroz): Rice.

Arzīlah (Arabic [أرزيلة], also Aṣīla [أصيلة]; Portuguese Arsila): See → Asilah.

ʻasal (Arabic): Molasses.

ʿatse (Amharic [ኣጼ], also romanized as atse): When referring to the Abyssinian (later Ethiopian) emperor by name, effectively “emperor” in the third person, for example ʿAtse → ʾƎskəndər. The emperor was referred to by the dignities of the formal girmawi (Ge’ez gärimawi, “His Imperial Majesty”), in oral address as Janhoy (Geʾez Janihoy), “Your Majesty,” “Sire,” literally “O Royal”), in his own household and family as getochu, “our master” (in the plural). See → girmawi, → Janhoy, and → getochu; also see → majesty.

ashraf (Arabic): Plural of → sharīf, noble. See → ashrafī.

ashrafī (Arabic): A → Mamlūk gold coin. See → money and → ashraf.

Asīgen (Arabic): A town near today’s Ouessane (Arabic Wazzān) in Morocco about halfway between → Tangier and → Fez. Leo Africanus called it Ezaggen. At the end of the 19th century there were only ruins left of the town, presumably destroyed in tribal warfare. Leo Africanus maintained that the town’s residents, “Haue a priuilege granted them by the ancient kings of Fez to drinke wine, which is otherwise forbidden by the law of Mahumet, and yet none of them all will abstaine from drinking it.” Source: Leo Africanus, The History and Description of Africa, translation edited by Dr. Robert Brown, 1896.

 Aṣīla (Arabic [أصيلة], also Arzīlah [أرزيلة]; Portuguese Arsila): See → Asilah.

Asilah (Arabic Aṣīla [أصيلة], also Arzīlah [أرزيلة]; Portuguese Arsila; from Phoenician and Roman Silis, Zili, or Zilis): A coastal town in today’s Morocco, conquered in 1471 by the Portuguese. It is famous for its 15th-century Portuguese ramparts, which still encircle the medina today.

aṣīr al-līmūn (Arabic; or ʿaṣīr al-līmūn, ʿaṣīr al-laymūn): Lemonade. The Arabic līmūn seems to be or have been a collective term for citrus fruit, from which our word “lemon” derived. There seems to have been a medieval Egyptian version of lemonade (lemon juice and sugar or honey) since the 12th century called qatarzimat, supposedly a popular beverage at Cairo markets. Trade records show that bottles of qatarzimat were sold in Cairo at the time and 13th century Arabic books on cooking provide recipes for various lemon-syrup drinks. Also see → ʿaṣīr an-nāranj.

aṣīr an-nāranj (Arabic; or ʿaṣīr an-nāranj): Orange juice. For the etymology of the word and a somewhat more detailed consideration of the fruit and its juice (also called ʿaṣīr al-Burtuqal in Arabic, literally “Portuguese juice”), see → orange and → aṣīr al-līmūn.

askut (Arabic [اسكت]): Shut up! or Shush!

asp or asp viper (Latin vipera aspis): A venomous → viper species found in southwest Europe. In the novel series, → Covilhã was bitten in Sicily by such an asp. The bite can be severe, painful, and if untreated may be fatal (4% mortality rate). The snake-bite episode in the novel series alludes to a passage in The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, cited in the epigraph at the beginning of Iter II.

assassin (English; ultimately from Arabic ḥashshāshīn, “hashish users”): A (hired) murderer (of a prominent person), especially for political or religious reasons. Historically, a member of a Muslim group who employed assassination of key enemy figures as their tactic, especially a member of the Nizari Ismaili sect of Islam.

The term entered the English language in the “1530s (in Anglo-Latin from mid-13c.), via medieval French and Italian assissini, assassini, from Arabic ḥashshāshīn (12c.).” Whereas the term “assassinate” is from the “1610s, from past participle stem of Medieval Latin assassinare.” Source: The Online Etymology Dictionary (https://www.etymonline.com).

Nevertheless, I use the term in the novel series, as the concept and the word’s root were well-known much earlier in the Mediterranean world, particularly due to the Crusades. And although common usage of the term in English may not have become widespread until the 1530s, it seems justifiable for a late 15th-century setting, in a narrative context of a supposed translation of a fictional journal written in the mid-16th century.

For a more detailed consideration of the Arabic and historical usage, see → ḥashshāshīn.

astrolabe (English from 14th century; from Medieval Latin astrolabium, from Greek astrolábos, “star taker”; Portuguese astrolábio, Arabic → ʾasṭurlāb): An early scientific instrument used for triangulation or as an inclinometer to determine the position of celestial bodies and indirectly to identify planets and a number of stars and subsequently find the on-site latitude with the known time or vice versa. The ancient instrument was further developed during the medieval Islamic period and used as an aid to → navigation and means to find the → qibla, the direction of → Mecca, as well as to graphically demonstrate and solve complex tasks in spherical astronomy. Also see → Jacob’s staff and → akhdh al-kawākib. Also see → saphea.

astrology (from Latin astrologia; from the late 14th century): The divination of the influence of the position and movement of heavenly bodies on human affairs and events. During → Covilhã’s time astrology and the science of → astronomy was not differentiated. Astrology was (and still is) used to create horoscopes. See → ṭāliʿ.

ʾasṭurlāb (Arabic [أَسْطُرْلَاب]): The astrolabe. Also see akhdh al-kawākib.

aswāq (Arabic [أسواق]; plural): Markets or bazaars. See → sūq.

Atlantic Ocean (Modern English; first use of Atlantic end of 15th century; Middle English occean since 14th century): The body of water west of Europe and Africa (west of the Atlas Mountains, origin of the term) and east of North and South America. In Medieval Europe it was called the “Great Western Ocean” or “Great Western Sea.” In writing, it was usually designated as the Latin Mare Tenebrosum, the “Sea of Darkness.” In Arabic it was called, Baḥr aẓ-Ẓulumāt, with the same meaning.

auto-de-fé (Spanish; Portuguese auto-da-fé): An “act of faith,” the public penance of condemned heretics during the (Spanish and later Portuguese) → Inquisition, often burning at the stake.

avoutry (Middle English): Adultery, “to lyve in avoutry.” In the novel series, the word occurs in the epigraph citing The Travels of Sir John Mandeville at the beginning of Iter II.

ʿawālim (Arabic; singular ʿalmah or ʿalmā, from ʿālima “to know” or “be learned”): Respectable female Egyptian entertainers, educated to sing, recite classical poetry, and discourse wittily. They were also hired as mourners at funerals. Their origin is uncertain, but appeared in (European) literature as of the 18th century. Later, they were also courtesans, and the term became a synonym for → ghawāzī (the traditional erotic dancers of Egypt, whose performances were banned in the 19th century) and for “belly dancer” (in Europe). For a somewhat more detailed consideration, see →  ghawāzī. Compare with → surrīyah and → qiyān.

Awash River (Amharic [አዋሽ]): The Awash, historically also known as Hawash, is a major river in the Horn of Africa. Historically, it flowed through → Fäṭägar, → Ifat, and → Shäwa (sultanates, later part of → Abyssinia). Today, its course is within → Ethiopia, emerging from the Central Highlands, flowing through the Afar Depression, and emptying in a series of lakes, the last of which is about 100 km from the Gulf of Tajura (in the Gulf of → Aden, south of → Bāb al-Mandab, and thus never reaching the sea).

awlād an-nās (Arabic): The sons of Mamlūk emirs, born as Muslim free men, and not accepted into the elite Mamlūk “nobility.” They were required to join the → ḥalqa, a special regiment of non-Mamluks.

ʾawraja (or ʾawuraja, Amharic [አውራጃ]): A county in → Abyssinia or (sub-)province of → Ethiopia prior to 1996. See → Yәfat.

aye: This term was not used as a confirmatory reply until the late 16th century (written evidence as of 1576). See → yea.

Ayla (Arabic): The proper name of → ʿAqaba during the Mamlūk era. See → al-ʿAqaba for more detailed information.

ʿaywa (Arabic): Yes. Found mostly in spoken, but rarely in written Arabic, in which the word → naʾam, is usually used. Also see →  lā, “no.”

Azammur (Arabic Azammūr; Portuguese Azamor; French Azemmour): A Moroccan town, previously called Anfa on the Atlantic coast, 75 km southwest of Casablanca, on left bank of the Ūm er-Rabīa (Oum er-Rbia), at the edge of the Shawiya.

In 1486 the inhabitants of Azammur, a dependency of the Kingdom of →Fez, sought the protection of the King Dom → João II and became vassals and tributaries to Portugal. Under the agreement, the town had to pay 10,000 → shad annually.

Pêro da → Covilhã, it seems, played a crucial role in the realization of the agreement, as it is documented that on his second journey to the Maghreb, Covilhã was (for reasons left unstated) explicitly sent to “Moly Belagegi” (a corruption of Mūlāy → Abūʾl-Ḥajjāj).

Pêro da → Covilhã also had instructions to buy horses for Duke Dom → Manuel, who later as king confirmed the agreement in 1497.

King Dom → Manuel sent a fleet under the command of João de Meneses (→ Joaquím de Meneses in the novel series—too many Joãos) to quell an uprising in 1508. See the punitive → Shawīyah Expedition of 1487 sent by King Dom → João II.

Azemmour (French, a colonial legacy of the French protectorate 1912–1956): See → Azammur.

Azza wa Jal (Arabic): An Islamic honorific applying to Allāh (God or the God in Islam) meaning “the Mighty and the Majestic.” Also see → subhanahu wa-taʿala.